The Water Storage Reservoirs Environmental Sciences Essay

The Water Storage Reservoirs Environmental Sciences Essay This report primarily focuses on two main reservoirs in Melbourne Sugarloaf and Cardinia Reservoir. It also describes the general problem of distribution of potable water to Melbourne and the measures proposed to overcome this problem. There are ten main reservoirs which distributes water to the Melbourne city and other surrounding areas. These ten reservoirs have a combined capacity of 1,812,175 million litres of water. The sediments in the catchment water stored in the storage reservoirs settle down to the bottom of the reservoir. The impact of natural sunlight will help to disinfect the settled water. Melbournes largest reservoir is the Thomson Reservoir. It contributes to 60% of Melbournes total reservoir storage capacity. Cardinia, Sugarloaf, Yan Yean and Greenvale are the only reservoirs with no catchment. They get water from other sources. Whereas the other reservoirs like Thomson, Upper Yarra, Silvan, Tarago, Maroondah and OShannassy receives water from the catchment areas. All these reservoirs are interconnected like a web link network. In case of any emergencies like bush fire, water from one reservoir can be transferred to another. Thus, protecting and saving the water from debris and other contaminants. Table 1: Water Storage level (Source ) Figure 1: Water storage graph (Source ) The above graph shows the water level of the reservoirs from 2009 to 2012. Compared to the previous years, it can be clearly seen that the water level in 2012 has increased to 70%. During the first half of the year, the water storage level has decreased drastically. On the other hand, the water level storage for the second half of the year has increased as compared to the first half. 1.1 Cardinia Reservoir Cardinia is the second largest reservoir in Melbourne with a total water storage capacity of 286,911 mega litres and is situated in the south-eastern suburbs of Melbourne, Australia. The construction of the reservoir commenced in May 1970 and completed in 1973 with a cost of more than AUD11.4 million dollars. Cardinia receives water through the pipeline from Silvan Reservoir, which is the fifth largest. It was constructed as rolled earth fill and rock fill embankment. Maximum height of the main dam from the river to crest is 85 metres. Length measured along the top of the dam is 1,542 metres. This includes main bank only. The saddle dams have an additional crest length of 2,841 metres. The Surface area of top water level is 1,295 hectares. The current water holding of this reservoir as of 3rd July 2012 is 219,724 mega litres, which is 76.6% full. Cardinia supplies water to Melbournes southern and south-eastern suburbs, and the Mornington Peninsula. 1.2 Sugarloaf Reservoir Sugarloaf Reservoir is the fourth largest of all among the ten, located in northeast of Melbourne. It was completed in 1981 and constructed as rolled rock fill embankment with upstream concrete face. Its total capacity is 96,253 mega litres. Area of the catchment is 915 hectares off stream storage. Maximum height of the main dam from the river to crest is 89 metres. The length measured along the top of the dam is 1,050 metres. This includes main bank only. The saddle dams have an extra length of 690 metres. The Surface area of top water level is 440 hectares. The current water holding of this reservoir is 94,514 mega litres as of 3rd July 2012, which is 98.2% full. The water feeds the northern, western and central suburbs. In February 2010, the North South Pipeline from the Goulburn River was connected to the main reservoir. 2.0 SOURCE OF WATER Cardinia and Sugarloaf reservoir, both has no catchment, but the water is transferred to it by other sources. A catchment is an area that catches the rainfall water and directs to a river, creek, reservoir or gutter. The water catchments are sent to the reservoirs that provide drinking water. There are two types of catchments closed or forested catchment and open catchment. Around 80% of the drinking water comes from the closed water catchments in the Yarra Ranges. About 20% of Melbournes water comes from open catchments. The water from open catchment is pumped to the water treatment system, and the filtered water is distributed to the household. Melbourne has protected water catchments i.e. public are not allowed to enter inside the protected area. The Sugarloaf reservoir receives water from Yering Gorge pumping station which can extract water from the Yarra River, including water released from Maroondah and OShannassy. It also receives water from Goulburn River via North- South pipeline. This is operated only in critical times. Water leaving from Sugarloaf Reservoir is treated and purified at Winneke Treatment Plant. The water will leave from this plant only if it meets the required standard for drinking. The Cardinia Reservoir receives water from the Silvan Reservoir and nearby Wonthaggi Desalination Plant. It is used to stockpile water for Melbourne. The recent bush fire contaminated over 30% of water in Melbourne. At this time, most of the water was transferred to Cardinia Reservoir. The water from Cardinia flows out to other service reservoirs for household distribution. 3.0 WINNEKE TREATMENT PLANT The Winneke treatment plant plays a prominent role in Melbournes water supply system. It was commissioned in November 1980, and it was the first time that fully treated water was introduced into the water supply system. More than 50% of Melbournes water is treated and purified at Winneke Treatment Plant. The plant is located 32 kilometres northeast of Melbourne at Sugarloaf Reservoir in Christmas Hills. The Sugarloaf Reservoir is one in ten reservoirs in Melbourne and is the fourth largest. The water requires full treatment process as it is not received from the protected catchment areas. The water comes into the plant from three main different sources- the Maroondah Reservoir by the Maroondah aqueduct and Yering Gorge pumping station, Yarra River by Yering Gorge pumping station and Goulburn River by the North-South pipeline. 3.1 Water Treatment Process overview Water treatment process involves coagulation, clarification, filtration, disinfection and pH correction (chlorination) and fluoridation. The water is passed through 14 sand filters before being added with chlorine, lime and fluoride. The filtered water is distributed only if it meets the Australian standard for drinking. Untitled.png Figure 2: Winneke Process Flow Diagram (Source) 3.1.1 Coagulation Untreated water is pumped from the Sugarloaf Reservoir to the Winneke inlet control structure. At this stage, lime and aluminium sulphate (alum) is added. The alum acts as a coagulant, which will suspend solids and other microorganisms to form larger particles. 3.1.2 Clarification The water then flows through an underground channel to a water distribution chamber. The water is sent to one of five sludge blanket clarifiers and polyelectrolyte injected to promote flocculation and sedimentation processes. Water is circulated in the clarifiers for 3 to 4 hours. The clarifiers improve the coherence and entrapment of the suspended solids and thus eliminate the colour from the water. Solid particles are separated from the raw water as settled water and sludge. 3.1.3 Filtration The settled water is delivered through concrete channels to 14 gravity filters (Sand filters). This will remove most of the remaining suspended solids. Each filter is a rectangular concrete structure with a bed of sand supported on a layer of pebbles. 3.1.4 Chlorination The water comes out of the filter is disinfected by the process called chlorination. A small amount of chlorine is added to disinfect the filtered water which will eliminate the residual microorganisms. This will help to kill bacteria and other micro organisms which spread waterborne diseases. Drinking water typically contains 0.2 milligram per litre (mg/l) 1.6 mg/l of chlorine. Lime is added to maintain the alkalinity and acidity (pH) level. The treated water flows into a large enclosed storage reservoir which is located adjacent to the treatment plant. This reservoir act as buffer storage and the water is released according to the needs. 3.1.5 Fluoridation Fluoride is added in small quantities to prevent tooth decay. Natural water contains concentrations up to 1MG/L (milligram per litre) of fluoride. Fluoride is a naturally occurring substance in rocks, soils and plants. Fluoride is added to drinking water at a concentration of approximately  0.7MG/L or less than 1 part per million. The left over debris from the plant is recycled for bike paths and building roads. 4.0 MELBOURNE WATER Melbourne Water is owned by Victoria Company. It maintains all aspects from water collection to distribution. A complex interconnected pipeline system distributes water from Melbournes main water storage reservoirs to the three retail business water companies and to their customers. Melbourne Water operates and maintains around 157,000 hectares of protected catchments in the Yarra Ranges. It has main ten water storage reservoirs and distributes to around 1,062 kilometres. It has 214 kilometres of aqueducts with 65 service reservoirs and 42 water treatment plants. 4.1 Water collection and distribution 4.1.1 Collection Majority of Melbournes water catchment is located in the forest areas of Yarra ranges. These forests capture and filter rainwater as it flows across the land into streams and then to the reservoirs. 4.1.2 Distribution From the main reservoir storages, through large pipes the water flow to the service reservoirs by gravity. There are about 55 service reservoirs, which is stored only for one or two days. These reservoirs will ensure that a constant supply of water during the peak demanding periods. From the service reservoirs, water flows down again by the gravity through smaller underground pipelines to households and businesses by the water retail network of pipes. Water pressure is adjusted so that all households receive water at all times. 5.0 Yarra River The Yarra River upstream of Warrandyte is the main source of Melbournes water supply. The progressive development of water supply infrastructure in Melbourne is driven primarily by population growth. The growth in consumption is been made possible by ever increasing abstractions from the Yarra catchment upstream. Water harvesting has caused flows in the Yarra River to be much less than they would otherwise be. Larger dams restrict the sediment flow down of the rivers. Another major issue with the removal of water from the Yarra River is the change in the echo system and diversion in river path. 6.0 Methods of providing Potable water A number of possible alternative water supply options have been put forward to extend the water supply to Melbourne and its surrounding areas into the future. These include: Desalination (Wonthaggi Desalination) Recycling water Rain/ storm water catchment Dual pipe recycling Upgrade of Sewage treatment plant Sugarloaf Pipeline Project Management of current water supplies (restrictions and public awareness ) Raising the height of the dam Re-opening past water sources for the sole purpose of water supply Construction of new dams Melbournes water resource is large enough to feed the entire population in the city. Water is available for urban use from the north east catchments of Melbourne. Building a new dam to collect water from the Thomson/Macalister, Latrobe or Mitchell basins is the most cost-effective approach. This can be a blessing for the Gippsland farmers. This should be the preferred approach. Water can also be brought from north of the Great Divide with the Sugarloaf scheme, but this would be a costly approach. The stormwater collection in Greenfield urban area is another option. Rainwater tanks have a higher capacity than urban stormwater collection but are inefficient and enforce unnecessary costs on the new house developments where they are mandatory and on the taxpayer where the tanks are subsidized. Regulations requiring their installation should be removed and subsidies to their installation should be discontinued. Similarly, the proposals for recycling of water from the Eastern Treatment Pla nt and for desalination should be rejected. The proposed Wonthaggi desalination plant, according to the estimates provided by the government, would result in excessive capital costs of $2 billion and significantly higher operating costs compared with making use of water from the catchment area. Various options for the Eastern Treatment Plant, including exchanging treated water for more harvesting from the Yarra, seem to be high cost approaches but could be further investigated. Modifying or increasing the release of flows from the reservoir and other points of regulation would prefer fewer benefits for in stream, riparian and wetland ecosystems than would measures to restore native vegetation, natural floodplain drainage patters or incentives or controls to improve the quality of discharge from agricultural and especially urban areas. Public awareness and cooperation are essential, as many of the actions which need to be taken to maintain or restore the ecosystem of the Yarra upstream of Warrandyte involve private land. 6.1 Conclusion The above methods of providing water for the future are all available but at a high cost to the taxpayer. The best option is to ensure that the all the measures implemented are well in place to organize and maintain its current resources. Climate change also has to be considered as this will have a negative impact on the ground water resource. Though ground water is replenished every year by the annual rain fall, figures are decreasing and evaporation rates rising as predicted under the CSIRO Climate Science. Public awareness is needed to ensure less wastage of water and maintain supply for the future.

Electronic Health Records Essay

Implementing a new electronic health records (EHR) system to replace manual records is an extremely complicated task. EHRs use complex algorithms to exchange patient data among different physicians and departments such as a pharmacy and laboratory. EHRs are becoming popular because employees and patients can access records anytime and anywhere. Patient drug alerts are also part of the system to warn emergency room and intensive care nurses about potential drug reactions. A needs assessment is a systematic procedure to determine what components are required for EHR implementation to prevent failure of the highly costly investment. Although EHR systems have been shown to dramatically reduce human error, proper assessment before undergoing the implementation process is critical or errors and costs could actually increase. An EHR assessment must be completed before the software packages can be selected to ensure it is conformed perfectly to the specialized needs of the hospital. According to the California Medical Association the assessment has two steps: 1.) Readiness Assessment; and 2.) Work Flow Analysis (Ginsberg et al., n.d.). The assessment should be done by a seasoned group of engineers, physicians, lab workers, billing staff, pharmacists, and nurses to collaborate so that each department increases patient safety and efficient care. The assessment should include a web-based demonstration that allows all stakeholders to identify gaps that would hinder their job responsibilities. Once the needs assessment has been done and vendors chosen as potential suppliers, the readiness assessment should begin. One of the most important data to collect is financial resources. Are more physicians going to be  hired that will increase training costs? Can the organization truly afford the upstart investment and ongoing computer support? Space considerations are also critical to evaluate because most closets are too small for the new EHR platforms that have huge servers. High-speed internet capabilities are a must for EHR data exchange between stakeholders. Moreover, are existing medical records planned to be thinned to put the data into the new system? If so, data needs to be destroyed according to HIPP protocol to protect patient confidentiality. The work flow analysis portion of the needs assessment looks at step-by-step procedures. Examples are scheduling, diagnostic tests, and reviewing tests, prescribing medication, clinical notes, and billing data (Ginsberg et al., n.d.). Other data to be analyzed for the EHR system should be medical history forms, lists of current medications vital signs, insurance, and referrals. The flow of steps in this planning process involves network upgrades, expanding server room space, a Medicare fraud plan, selection of three EHR vendors, visiting other hospitals using the systems, negotiating, and finally select the model that is best suited to all stakeholders. A 10-year study done by the Canada Health Info way about who should be consulted during adoption of an EHR system looked at 29 key stakeholders involved in establishing policy (Rozenblum et al., 2001). They found that stakeholders should be consulted from a bottom-up, clinical needs approach first because they will be the heaviest users of the system. This means physicians, nurses, certified nursing assistants, billers, lab workers, and pharmacy employees need to have significant input into selecting what aspects are most important. The number one reason for implementation failure is inadequate involvement of line-worker clinicians (Rozenblum et al., 2001). Therefore, the informatics team must work very closely with these stakeholders. Other critical stakeholders to consult are the finance department to ensure how much funding is available. Patients are also important stakeholders because no one wants their health information linked to a huge system that is insecure and prone to hacking confidential medical records. Policy makers at the executive organizational and governmental level also have powerful sway over which EHR is chosen. Lack of  collaboration among these diverse groups can delay implementation of the system for decades. Appropriate needs assessment provides relevant feedback to upper management. This helps these higher-ups make wise decisions based on financial resources, training needs for staff, vendor choice, and whether or not EHR is even necessary (Hartzler et al, 2013). Upper management is also provided with the ability to analyze which employees should have access to the system (or what parts of the system) to complete their designated tasks. Gaps between â€Å"wants† and â€Å"needs† can also be identified so that valuable resources are analyzed in cost-benefit analysis. Training needs or additional hiring of employees can also be anticipated to prevent glitches in the system due to human error. EHR systems can increase profit margins and protect patients from human error if assessed closely prior to purchase and implementation. References Ginsberg, D. (n.d.). Successful preparation and implementation of an electronic health records system. Best Practices: A guide for improving the efficiency and quality of your practice. Retrieved December 26, 2014 at https://www.cmanet.org/files/pdf/ehr/best-practices-7.pdf. Hartzler, A. et al. (2013). Stakeholder engagement: A key component of integrating genomic information into electronic health records. Genetics in Medicine, 15, 792-801. Rozenblum, R. (2001). A qualitative study of Canada’s experience with the implementation of electronic health information technology. CMAJ, 183(5), E281-E288.

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The Ethics Of Mental Health Nursing - 1596 Words

In order to address the moral theory and moral principles that underpin the ethics of mental health nursing, I intend to demonstrate how clinical decision making mental health nursing is formulated based on the chosen moral principles of beneficence, non-maleficence and ‘respect for autonomy’ (NHS, 2015). I will also be considering the influence of consequentialist theory in mental health nursing, as I believe this to be the ethical core of the debate. Consequentialist theory dictates that moral justification for the clinical rationale process by health professionals lies in the result of the process as a whole. This ‘all or nothing’ view of mental healthcare can be seen as the conceptual ancestor of modern day ‘best interest’ practices, and an ethical chrysalis that patient advocacy can also draw its roots. (Miller-Keane, 2003) From our given scenario (see appendix); some of the staff that believe Paul should be restrained into the bath in order to stave off further illness, despite the distress that this process would cause him, logically this the most appropriate course of action, as it was not morally justifiable to cause distress to the patient in order to alleviate a more pressing need. if however the continuation of suffering through the lack of action regarding Paul’s physical healthcare deterioration, is held to be the highest moral regard, the very act of omission or failing to act where it was reasonably practicable for the team to intervene in his healthcare,Show MoreRelatedNursing Ethics : The Four Biomedical Principles Of Nursing1550 Words   |  7 PagesIn this essay I will be discussing and exploring the four biomedical principles of nursing which refer to: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice. 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